ISLAMIC KINGDOMS IN INDONESI

a. Kingdom of Samudra Pasai
    The kingdom was founded by Sultan Malik al-Shaleh as well as the first king in the 13th century. Kingdom of Pasai Ocean located north Perlak in the Lhok Semawe now (east coast of Aceh).
As a royal, king reigned over the ocean turns Pasai. The kings who ruled Pasai Ocean is as follows.
(1) Sultan Malik al-Shaleh attempt laid the foundations of Islamic rule and sought to develop his kingdom among others through trade and strengthen the army. Pasai Ocean developed into a powerful maritime state in the Malacca Straits.

(2) Muhammad Sultan (Sultan Malik al Tahir I) who ruled from 1297-1326. During his reign the kingdom Perlak then united with the Kingdom of Samudra Pasai.
(3) Sultan Malik al Tahir II (1326-1348 AD). Raja Ahmad, whose real name is so firmly holds the teachings of Islam and Muslims to actively broadcast the surrounding countries. As a result, developing Pasai Ocean as a center spread of Islam. During his reign, Pasai Ocean has a strong fleet so that the traders feel safe transit and trade around Pasai Ocean. However, after emerging kingdom of Malacca, Pasai Ocean began to fade. Pasai Ocean in 1522 was occupied by the Portuguese. The existence of Pasai Ocean as a maritime empire was replaced by the Kingdom of Aceh who came later.
    Another note about this kingdom can be known from the writings of Ibn Battuta, a traveler from Morocco. According to Battuta, in 1345, the Ocean Pasai a prosperous trade empire. Many traders from Java, China, and India who come there. This is due to the strategic location of Pasai Ocean at the Strait of Malacca. Currency gold is disebur deureuham (dirhams).
    In the field of religion, Pasai Ocean became the center of Islamic study. The kingdom is spread Islam until the Minangkabau, Jambi, Malacca, Java, and even to Thailand. From the Kingdom of Samudra Pasai cadres Islam is prepared to develop Islam into various areas. One is Fatahillah. He was the son Pasai who later became commander in Demak later became ruler of Banten.

b. Kingdom of Aceh
    Subsequent Islamic empire was the kingdom of Aceh in Sumatra. Kingdom founded by Sultan Ibrahim Ali who holds Mughayat Shah (1514-1528), became important because withdrawal Pasai Ocean Empire and the Kingdom of the development of Malacca.
    Aceh Kingdom central government in Kutaraja (Banda Aceh now). The style of governance in Aceh consists of two systems: the civil government under the nobility, called teuku groups, and governments on the basis of religion under the clergy, called Tengku or teungku group.

Baiturrohman Mosque in Aceh

    As an empire, Aceh experienced a period of back and forth. Aceh boomed during the reign of Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607-1636). During his reign, Aceh was the golden age. Aceh can even master Johor, Pahang, Kedah, Perak in the Malay Peninsula and Indragiri, Bintan and Nias. In addition, Iskandar Muda also preparing legislation called the Indigenous governance Mahkota Alam.

    After Sultan Iskandar Muda, no longer able to control the Acehnese sultan. Aceh suffered a setback under the leadership of Sultan Iskandar Thani (1636-1641). He was succeeded by his queen, Princess Consort Sri Alam (1641-1675). History records Aceh increasingly weakened by infighting between groups teuku and teungku, and between Shia and Sunna group sal flow of pilgrims. Finally, the Dutch managed to control Aceh in 1904.
    In the social field, its strategic location in the central point of international trade route in the Strait of Malacca makes Aceh increasingly crowded Muslim merchants.
    Tempers assimilation in both social and economic. In social life, there is a fusion between tradition and Islam. At about the 16th century and 17 are four experts Sufism in Aceh, namely Hamzah Fansuri, Shamsuddin as-Sumtrani, Nur ad-Din ar-Raniri, and Abdurrauf of Singkil.
Fourth was very influential scholars not only in Aceh but also in Java.
    In economic life, Aceh is growing rapidly in its heyday. With control of the area east and west coast of Sumatra, Aceh became a kingdom rich in natural resources, such as rice, gold, silver and tin, and spices.

c. Kingdom of Demak and Pajang
    Demak was the first Islamic kingdom in Java. Kingdom that was founded by Prince Fracture at first is a region with a name that Bintoro Glagah or under the authority of Majapahit. Majapahit suffered a setback at the end of the 15th century. This slowdown provides an opportunity for Demak to develop into a major city and commercial center. With the help of the clergy Walisongo, Demak developed into the center of the spread of Islam in Java and the eastern archipelago.

             Demak Mosque

    For the kingdom, Demak ruled by successive kings. Demak was founded by Prince Fracture (1500-1518) who holds Alam Sultan Akhbar al Fatah. Broken is actually a Prince Raden Jimbun, son of the king of Majapahit. During his reign, Demak growing rapidly. Demak territory covers an area of ​​their own, Semarang, Tegal, Jepara and its surroundings, and quite influential in Palembang and Jambi in Sumatra, as well as some areas of Borneo. Because it has such important ports of Jepara, Tuban, Sedayu, Gresik, Raden Patah strengthen his fleet so Demak developed into a powerful maritime nation. With that power, Demak tried to attack Portuguese Malacca at that master. Demak help Malacca because the interests of Demak participated disturbed by the presence of the Portuguese in Malacca. However, the attack failed.
    Raden Patah later replaced by the Duke of Unus (1518-1521). Although he did not rule long, but its name is quite well known as a warlord who dare.
He tried to stem the influence of the Portuguese do not extend to Java. Because die young, Duke Unus later succeeded by his brother, Sultan Trenggono (1521-1546). Under his reign, Demak experienced its heyday. Trenggono managed to bring Demak expanding territory. In 1522, troops under the command of Demak Fatahillah attack Banten, Sunda Kelapa, and Cirebon. New in 1527, Sunda Kelapa been won. In an attack on Pasuruan in 1546, Sultan Trenggono fall.
    After the death of Sultan Trenggono, Demak decline. Occurs power struggle between Prince Sekar Sedolepen, brother Sultan Trenggono should be king and Sunan Prawoto, the eldest son of Sultan Trenggono. Sunan Prawoto later defeated by Arya Penangsang, Sekar Sedolepen Pengeran child.
However, Arya Penangsang was then killed by Joko Tingkir, the son of Sultan Trenggono Duke on Display. Joko Tingkir (1549-1587) who later styled Sultan Hadiwijaya move to the center of the kingdom of Demak Display.
    Kingdom became known as the Kingdom of Pajang.
Sultan Hadiwijaya then repay his aides who had been instrumental in the battle against Aryan Penangsang. They are Ki Ageng archery accept gifts of land in the area Mataram (Alas Mentaok), Ki Penjawi rewarded with territory in the Pati, and both at once appointed as regent in their respective regions. Regent of Surabaya which many meritorious subdue the regions in East Java was appointed viceroy with Sedayu territory, Gresik, Surabaya, and Panarukan.
    When Sultan Hadiwijaya died, he was succeeded by his son Sultan Benowo. During his reign, Arya Pangiri, son of Sultan Prawoto rebellion. However, the rebellion was extinguished with the help of Prince Benowo Sutawijaya, adopted son Sultan Hadiwijaya. Display throne was handed over to the Prince Benowo Sutawijaya. Sutawijaya then move to the center of the kingdom of Mataram Display.
In the religious field, Raden Patah and assisted the trustees, Demak appear as a center spread of Islam. Raden Patah then built a magnificent mosque, the Mosque of Demak.
    In the field of economy, Demak is a transit port (interface) is essential. As a trading center of Demak has important ports, such as Jepara, Tuban, Sedayu, Gresik. Ports are a focal area of ​​spice and buyers. Demak also has a large income from the farm is big enough. As a result, the economy Demak degan growing rapidly.

d. Kingdom of Mataram and legacy
    Sutawijaya who got an abundance of Royal Pajang of Sultan Benowo then move the seat of government to the authority of his father, Ki Ageng Pemanahan, in Mataram. Sutawijaya later became king of Mataram with the title Panembahan alaga Sayidin Panatagama Senopati Ing.
Senopati Panembahan Government (1586-1601) did not go smoothly as marked by rebellion. Kingdom centered in Kotagede (southeast of the city of Yogyakarta today) is always a war to subdue the regents who want to escape from the power of Mataram, as Regent of Ponorogo, Madiun, Kediri, Pasuruan even Demak. However, all areas that can be overcome. The last area is mastered with the help of Sunan Giri Surabaya.
    After Senopati died, his son Mas jolang (1601-1613) ascended the throne and the title of Sultan Anyakrawati. He had mastered Kertosono, Kediri, and Mojoagung. He died in battle in the area that became known as Krapyak Prince Sedo Krapyak.
    Mas jolang later replaced by Mas Stimulation (1613-1645). Raja Sultan Agung of Mataram who holds Alogo Ngabdurracham Senopati ing is then better known as Sultan Agung. During his reign, reached its golden Mataram. The seat of government moved to Plered. His rule covering Central Java, East Java, and part of West Java. Sultan Agung aspire to unite Java. Feeling as successor kingdom of Demak, Sultan Agung Banten is considered part of the Kingdom of Mataram. However, Banten not want to submit to Mataram. Sultan Agung Banten then intend to win.

           Sultan Agung

    However, the intention is hampered due to VOC control of Sunda Kelapa. VOC also did not like Mataram. As a result, Sultan Agung had to deal first with the VOC. Sultan Agung twice tried to attack VOC: in 1628 and 1629.
    The attack did not succeed, but it could stem the influence of VOC in Java.
Sultan Agung of Mataram kingdom divided government system as follows.
(1) Kutanegara, the central area of ​​the palace. Implementation of government held by the duke Lebet (Patih In) assisted Wedana Lebet (Wedana In).
(2) the State Court, the area around Kutanegara. Implementation of the government held Patih Jawi (Patih rating) assisted Wedana Jawi (Wedana rating).
(3) Abroad, the area outside of the State Court. Implementation of government held by the Regents.
(4) Coastal, coastal areas. Implementation of government held by the Regents or the harbormaster.
Sultan Agung died in 1645 and was replaced by Amangkurat I (1645-1677). Amangkurat I establish a relationship with the Netherlands. During his reign. Mataram attacked by Trunojaya of Madura, but it can be thwarted because assisted Netherlands.
Amangkurat I then replaced by Amangkurat II (1677-1703). During his reign, the kingdom of Mataram narrowed area because it was taken by the Dutch.
After Amangkurat II, the kings who ruled Mataram no longer have complete control because of the Dutch influence is very strong. Even in 1755, Mataram was split into two due Giyanti Agreement:
Ngayogyakarta (Sultanate of Yogyakarta), based in Yogyakarta with the title of king Mangkubumi lane I and Kesuhunan Surakarta Surakarta centered on the king's Majesty Pakubuwono III. Thus, ending the kingdom of Mataram.
    Social and economic life Mataram is quite advanced. As the kingdom, Mataram forward almost in all fields, agriculture, religion, culture. In the days of the Majapahit Kingdom, came Javanese culture, blending native Javanese culture, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam, for example Grebeg ceremony, Sekaten. The famous work of literature is the work of Sultan Agung Ivory Literature. In 1633, Sultan Agung change calculations are based on the calculation of the Hindu year by year the sun by the moon of Islam.

e. Kingdom of Banten
    Kingdom located in western Java was originally a part of the kingdom of Demak. Banten was captured by forces under the command of Fatahillah Demak. Fatahillah is the son of the Sharif Hidayatullah. Sharif Hidayatullah was one trustee who is empowered by Demak kingdom to rule in Cirebon. Sharif Hidayatullah had 2 sons of men, prince and Prince Sabakingkin Pasarean. Prince Pasareaan power in Cirebon. In 1522, Prince Saba Kingkin later better known by the name of Hasanuddin anointed King Banten.
    Once the kingdom of Demak setback, Banten then get away from Demak. Stand Banten kingdom with its king Sultan Hasanudin (1522-1570). During his reign, the influence of Banten to Lampung. That is, Bantenlah who controlled the trade route in the Sunda Strait. The merchants from China, Persia, Gujarat, who came to Turkey many ports in Banten. Banten kingdom developed into a center of trade due to its highly strategic addition, Banten is also supported by several factors including the fall of Malacca to the hands of the Portuguese (1511) so that the Muslim traders switched lanes voyage through Sunda Strait. Other factors, Banten is the producer of pepper and rice, commodities sold on the world market.
    Sultan Hasanudin then replaced his son, Prince Joseph (1570-1580).
During his reign, Banten won Pajajaran and Pakuan.
Prince Joseph was replaced by Maulana Muhammad. The king who holds the Queen Kanjeng Banten just nine years old when it was made king. Therefore, in running the government, aided by Maulana Muhammad Mangkubumi. In 1595, he led an expedition to attack Palembang. In that battle, Maulana Muhammad died.
    Maulana Muhammad was succeeded by his son Abu'lmufakhir five-month-old. In running a government, aided by Jayanegara Abu'lmufakhir. Abu'lmufakhir Abu'ma'ali Ahmad was replaced by Rahmatullah. Abu'ma'ali was replaced by Rahmatullah Ahmad Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa (1651-1692).

Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa

    Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa make Banten as a kingdom thrive. To help, Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa in 1671 raised purtanya, Sultan Abdulkahar, As with the king maid. However, the title of sultan Sultan Haji associated with the Netherlands. Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa who did not like it tried to take over control of the government, but to no avail because Sultan Haji supported the Netherlands. Finally, civil war broke out. Sultan Ageng Tirtayasa caught and imprisoned. Thus, Banten gradually deteriorated since displaced by the Batavia under Dutch rule.

f. Kingdom of Cirebon
Kingdom that lies on the border between West Java and Central Java was founded by a member of Walisongo, Sunan Gunung Jati with a degree Sharif Hidayatullah.
Sharif Hidayatullah bring progress to Cirebon. When Demak send troops under Fatahilah (Faletehan) to attack the Portuguese in Sunda Kelapa, Sharif Hidayatullah provide full assistance. Even in 1524, Fatahillah taken by Sharif Hidayatullah law. After Fatahillah managed to expel the Portuguese from Sunda Kelapa, Sharif Hidayatullah asked Fatahillah to become regent in Jayakarta.
Sharif Hidayatullah was succeeded by his son Prince Pasarean. This is the king of the kings down next Cirebon.

Syarif Hidayatullah (Sunan Gunung Jati)

In 1679, Cirebon had divided into two, namely Kasepuhan and Kanoman.
With political impera de vide at Dutch launched at that time was influential in Cirebon, Sultanate Kanoman divided into Kanoman Sultanate and Kacirebonan. Thus, Cirebon power is divided into three, namely Kasepuhan, Kanoman, and Kacirebonan. Cirebon successfully controlled VOC at the end of the 17th century.

g. Kingdom of Gowa-Tallo
Kingdom which is located in South Sulawesi is actually composed of two jobs:
Gowa and Tallo. Both are then united kingdom. King of Gowa, Daeng Manrabia, became king title Sultan Alauddin and King Tallo, Karaeng Mantoaya, became prime minister Abdullah Sultan title. Since the central government located in Makassar, the Kingdom of Gowa and Tallo often referred to as the Kingdom of Makassar.
Because of its strategic position between the western and the eastern archipelago, the Kingdom of Gowa and Tallo became the main port for entering Indonesia rich Eastern spices. Kingdom of Makassar had a tough sailors mainly from the Bugis area. These are the reinforcing sea defense Makassar.
The famous king of this kingdom is Sultan Hasanuddin (1653-1669).
Hasanuddin Makassar successfully expanded its territory either to the top to Sumbawa and Flores in the southern part.

Sultan Hasanuddin (ayam jantan dari Timur)

Because it is a major port to enter Eastern Indonesia, Hasanuddin aspire to make Makassar as the center of trade in eastern Indonesia. It is a threat to the Netherlands so often fighting and robbery of a Dutch fleet. Dutch then attack with the help of Aru Palaka Makassar, king Bone. Netherlands managed to force Hasanuddin, The Roosters East Bongaya Treaty was agreed in 1667. The contents of the agreement are: the Dutch trade monopoly in Makassar, Dutch should set up a fort in Makassar, Makassar had to let go of its colonies, and the Aru Palaka be recognized as King Bone.
Sultan Hasanuddin later replaced by Mapasomba. However, the ruling did not Mapasomba long since mastered Dutch Makassar, South Sulawesi and even whole.
Tata life growing in Makassar influenced by Islamic law.
  Life economy based on maritime economy: trade and shipping. South Sulawesi is itself a fertile agricultural region. Taklukkannya areas in the southeast as Selayar and Buton and south as Lombok, Sumbawa and Flores also an area rich in natural resources. All that makes Makassar able to meet all their needs even able to export.
Because it has a tough sailors and is located at the entrance of the trade routes of Eastern Indonesia, drafted Ade'Allapialing Bicarana Pabbalri'e, a trade and commerce law system and a papyrus manuscript written by Amanna Gappa.

h. Kingdom of Ternate and Tidore
    Ternate is an Islamic empire in the east stands in the 13th century by the king Zainal Abidin (1486-1500). Zainal Abidin was a pupil of Sunan Giri in the Kingdom of Demak. Tidore kingdom standing on the other islands by Sultan Mansur as king.
Kingdom located in Eastern Indonesia became the target of the traders because Maluku is rich spices. Kingdom of Ternate rapidly growing thanks to the spices, especially cloves.
    Ternate and Tidore peaceful coexistence. However, the peace did not last forever. After the Portuguese and Spanish came to the Moluccas, the two kingdoms successfully played off. As a result, between the two kingdoms there is competition. Portuguese who entered the Moluccas in 1512 made Ternate as allies by building a fort Sao Paulo. Spain entered the Moluccas in 1521 made Tidore as allies.
With the timing of these two European nations in Tidore and Ternate, there has been fighting constantly. It happened because both peoples both want to monopolize the results of the two kingdoms of the earth. On the other hand, it turns out it's not just the Europeans to trade but also try to spread their religion. The spread of this religion are challenged by the King of Ternate, Sultan Khairun (1550-1570). When consulted by the Dutch in the castle Sao Paulo, Sultan Khairun killed by the Portuguese.
Having realized that they played off, improved relations between the two kingdoms again. Sultan Khairun later replaced by Sultan Baabullah (1570-1583). 

Sultan Babullah

During his reign, the Portuguese were driven from Ternate. That success is inseparable from the support of Sultan Tidore. Sultan Khairun also successfully expanded its territory to the Philippines Ternate.

    Meanwhile, the kingdom of Tidore progress during the reign of Sultan Nuku. Sultan Nuku succeeded in expanding the influence of Tidore to Halmahera, Ceram, even Kai in the south and Misol in Irian.

Sultan Nuku

    With the entry of Spain and Portugal to the Moluccas, religious and social life in Maluku so diverse: there are Catholicism, Protestantism, and Islam. Islamic influence is felt in Ternate and Tidore. Protestant influence is felt in Maluku and central parts of the Catholic influence is felt around the southern Maluku.
Maluku is the spice producing areas are very popular even to Europe. That commodity that attracts people of Europe and Asia came to the archipelago. The merchants brought their goods and exchange it with spices. The process was initially profitable trading community. However, with the enactment of the political monopoly of the trade, a decline in many areas, including social welfare.

BANI UMAYAH II ANDALUSIA

A.      Faktor Masuknya Islam ke Andalusia

Bani umayyah merebut andalusia dari bangsa gotsia barat pada masa kholifah Walid Bin Abdul Malik ( 86-96 H / 705-715 M ) masuknya islam ke andalusia tidak bisa dipisahkan dari kondisi kerajaan gotsia barat yang mengalami kemunduran akibat beberapa hal yaitu :

1.    Perpecahan elit politik

2.    Penindasan penguasa nasrani terhadap orang-orang yahudi

3.    Beban pajak yang sangat tinggi.

B.       Proses Masuknya Islam ke Andalusia.

Bangsa Arab pada saat itu mengintai peluang yang baik untuk menaklukkan Andalusia. Pada tahun 710M Witiza raja gotsia barat wafat dan singgasana diduduki secara paksa oleh panglimanya yang bernama Roderic. Maka anak Witiza dendam pada Roderic. Untuk merebut kembali kedudukan mediang ayahnya iya bersekuti dengan Graf Julian ( raja Cueta ) yang juga musuh Roderik. Akhirnya mereka minta bantuan kepada Musa Bin Nushair ( gubernur afrika utara ), tentu Musa mintak izin kepada kholifah Walid atas hal tersebut. Akhirnya kholifah mengizinkan dan berpesan agar berhati-hati terhadap Graf Julian. Untuk membuktikan kebenaran Graf Julian maka musa memerintahkan perwira Thorif Bin Malik dengan membawa 500 orang tentara yang akhirnya mampu menguasai beberapa pelabuhan di Andalusia selatan dan Thorif mendapat bantuan besar dari Graf hingga mendapatkan harta rampasan yang banyak.

Satahun kemudian Musa mengirimkan 7000 orang tentara yang dipimpin oleh Toriq bin Ziyad, dan mendarat di bukit karang gibraltal ( jabal thorik ). Sampai disana ia menduduki propensi selatan kerajaan Gosia barat ( semenanjung Iberia ) dan menguasai benteng kuat terus menuju kerajaan toledo ibukota kerajaan Gosia. Ketika mendengar tentara Thorik masuk Andalusia Roderic langsung mengirimkan 100.000 tenteranya, melihat musuh tidak seimbang segeralah Tkoric memintak bantuan kepada Musa dan dikirimlah sebanyak 5000 orang tentara lalu terjadilah perang xeres ( dikota xeres ), dakam perang tersebut tenra Toriq bin Ziyad berhasil menang Roderic sendiri tewas. Kemenangan Toriq bin Ziyad tida lepas dari Graf julian yang sangat benci kepada Roderic. Dampak dari kemenangan itu beberapa daerah berangsur-angsur dapat ditundukkan seperti : Tholedo, Sevilla, Malaga, Elvira, dan Kordova.

Mendengar keberhasilan Toriq bin Ziyad, Musa ingin mendapat expansi keandalusia, pada tahun 712M, Musa bersama 18.000 tentara Barbar dan Arab menuju Andalusia dan dapat menaklukkan daerah Carmuna dan beberapa wilayah Barcelona sebelah timur. Didekat kota Tholedo Musa menjumpai Toriq bin Ziyad, pada kesempatan itu Musa memarai Toriq bin Ziyad yang tidak melaporkan hasil rampasan perang. Tetapi akhirnya keduanya mencapai kesepakatan untuk bekerjasama dan membentuk pasukan gabungan Islam untuk melancarkan serangan lebih jauh keandalusia lainnya. Setelah menaklukkan beberapa daerah diandalusia Musa ingin melanjutkan serangannya ke Perancis tetapi Kholifah Walid khawatir Musa akan memproklamirkan Negara / wilayah-wilayah yang ditaklukkannya menjadi independen karna itu ia memanggil Musa untuk pulang ke Andalusia Untuk melaporkan Harta rampasan. Abdul Aziz putra Musa ditunjuk sebagai pelaksana gubernur di Andalusia.

Keberhasilan tentara Islam yang dipimpin oleh Toriq bin Ziyad dan Musa ini membawa citra Bagi umat Isalam, sebab penaklukkan Andalusia / spanyol membuka lembaran baru dalam perjalanan sejarah politik militer umat islam khususnya pada masa dinasti Bani Umayyah I ( 661-750M ). Karna umat Islam telah membebaskan masyarakat Andalusia dari kekejaman dan kedholiman penguasa Roderic. Jatuhnya Andalusia itu membuka jalan baru bagi umat islam untuk menyebarkan Islam keseluruh Eropa, namun sayang konflik interen kemudian menjadi penyebab utama kehancuran penguasa islam di spanyol yang menyebebkan mereka terusir dari negara itu pada tahun 1492M.

I.     Abdurrahman Addakhil Pendiri Bani Umayyah II di Andalusia

Awal perjalanan Abdurrahman sampai keandalusia sangat sulit, ia dikejar-kejar oleh pasukan Abu ja’far Almanshur, raja Bani Abasyiah yang berupaya melenyapkan sisa-sisa bani Umayyah termasuk Abdurrahman namun mengalami kegagalan yang akhirnya berdirilah bani Umayyah II di Andalusia ( 756-1031M ), dinasti ini mencapai kejayaannya pada masa Abdurrahman III ( 300-350H / 912-916M )selama periode bani umayyah II kordova tetap menjadi kota yang megah seperti kemegahan bahgdat pada masa bani abasiya. Abdurrah menjadi raja selama 32 th ( 138-172H / 756- 788M ) yang wilayahnya meliputi kordova, Arkidona, Sevilla, Tholledo, dan Grannada. Untuk memperluas dan mempertahankan wilayahnya beliau membangun dan mengembangkan angkatan bersenjata yang kuat dan terlatih dari bangsa barbar yang dikenal cukup loyal karena digaji cukup tinggi. Setelah relatif berhasil menciptakan konsolidasi dan integrasi masyarakat Andalusiya, Addakhil mulai memperhatikan kemajuan peradaban, ia memperindah kota-kota diwilayah kekuasaannya, membangun saluran air bersih disekeliling ibu kota, membangun Istanah Munyah Ar-rusafah meniru Istana di damaskus. 2 tahun setelah kematiannya ia membangun masjid raya Kordova yang bertahan sampai sekarang dengan nama populer La Mozqoeta, selain masjid ia juga membangun jembatan yang melintasi sungai Guadal Quivir.

II.  Hisyam I ( 172-180H / 788-796M )

Hisyam I adalah putra abdurrahman I sebagaian sejarawan menyerupakan ketegasannya sama dengan Umar Bin Abdul Aziz ( raja ke 8 Bani Umayyah di Damaskus ). Hisyam I sangat besar perhatiannya terhadap kesejahteraan dan keadilan rakyatnya, ia terkenal sebagai kholifah yang dekat dengan para ulama’, mereka mendapatkan kesempatan besar untuk mengembangkan kemampuan dan ilmu mereka kepada rakyat, serta mendapatkan kedudukan yang sangat diperhitungkan didalam pemerintahan. Diantara ulama’ yang hidup pada masa itu adalah Yahya Bin Yahya Al-Laits salh seorang murit imam malik ( kitab Al-muato’ ). Dalam menjalankan repotasi pemerintahannya hisyam tidak segan-segan memecat pejabat yamg dinilai lalai dan korup, ia mendirikan dinasti intelijen yang bertugas mengawasi para pejabat, ia juga dikenal sangat populis, adil dan sebagai pencetus pengajaran bahasa arab di sekolah-sekolah termasuk sekolah yahudi. Setelah memerintah 7 thn lebih ia wafat dengan meninggalkan kajayaan Bani Umayyah II diandalusia.

III.    Alhakam I ( 180-206H / 796-822M )

Alhakam I adalah putra hisyam I, semenjak pemerintahan Alhakam Andalusia mulai mengalami kemunduran yang siknifikan. Ia kholifah yang pertama kali menerapkan sekularisme dalam pemerintahan, peran ulama’ dibatasi hanya dalam ranah agama dan tidak boleh mempunyai andil dalam urusan pemerintahan. Sikap ini menyulut pemberontakan para ulama’ yag dipimpin oleh Yahya Allaits di cordova namun pemberontakan itu dapat dipadamkan. Di tolitolia dan valensia pemberontakan jg terjadi dibawah pimpinan dua paman alhakam tetapi pemberontakan ini tidak mampu menggeser kedudukan alhakam dari kursi pemerintahannya, karena seringnya terjadi perang saudara antara umat islam raja-raja kristen diutara berupaya memanfaatkan kesempatan tersebut untuk menyerbu daerah perbatasan sepanyol, namun tentara alhakam berhasil menumpas serbuan tersebut. Setelah memegang tampok pemerintahan dua puluh tuju tahun alhakam I wafat dan diganti putranya yaitu abdurrahman.

IV.    Abd Rahman Al-Ausath ( 206-238H / 822-852M )

Pada masa pemerintahannya sepanyol / Andalusia mengalami banyak kemajuan dalam berbagai bidang spt ; Ekonomi, politik, Kurtural, dan Sosial. Kemajuan tersebut hampir menyaingi kemajuan yang dicapai Bani Abasiyah dalam periode yang sama. Khalifah-khalifah Dinasti Bani Umayyah II sangat toleran terhadap multi kulturalisme dan perbedaan Agama, mereka sering mengadakan kerjasama dengan para raja kristen di perbatasan untuk saling menjaga perdamaian kedua belah pihak dari serangan musuh, namun disisi lain banyak pihak yang menodai toleransi ini, para pastur kristen misalnya mereka secara terang-terangan berani mencela nabi Muhammad S.A.W. tentu ini adalh sebuah penghinaan yang tidak bisa dibiarkan begitu saja. Pada akhirnya khalifah memerintahkan pasukannya untuk melenyapkan mereka.

V.       Muhammad I ( 238-273H / 852-886M )

VI.    Almundzir ( 273-275H / 886-888M )

VII. Abdullah ( 275-300H / 888-912M )

Selama pemerintahan tiga orang tersebut 72 thn hampir tidak ada peristiwa dan perstasi yang mencolok, hanya ada beberapa kejadian yang tertulis dalam sejarah misalnya penumpasan terhadap pemberontakan di Barcelona dan tolitolia. Setelah memegang tampok pemerintahan 35 thn muhammad I wafat dan diganti oleh putranya mundzir yang hanya memerintah selama dua tahun.

Mundzir kemudian diganti oleh abdullah, pada masa perintahannya banyak terjadi pemberontakan kaum kristen disekitar wilayah kordova dan utara sepanyol. Belum lama memerintah sudah banyak wilayah sepanyol yang memisahkan diri dari pangkuan bani umayyah tersebut. Hal ini dikarenakan ketidak kacapan abdullah dalam menyelenggarakan pemerintahannya. Selama 24 thn masa pemerintahannya kekuasaan dan wilayahnya hanya tersisa didaerah granada yang menjadi benteng terakhir dinasti tersebut.

VIII.   Abdurrahman III (300-350H / 912-961M )

Pada masa pemerintahan abdurrahman III inilah dinasti bani umayyah dua mencapai fase keemasan. Dengan berbekal kemampuan dan kewibawaannya dalam masa kurang dari 20 thn ia berhasil memadamkan pemberontakan dan mengembalikan daerah-daerah yang memisahkan diri, termasuk pemberontakan yang dipimpin oleh Umar Bin Hafsun. Sementara itu pasukan kristen di utara sepanyol terus mengganggu wilayah islam, maka abdurrahman terjun langsung memimpin sejumlah pasukan berusaha mengamankan daerah islam disamping itu ia juga berhasil mengamankan daerah perbatasan dengan perancis. Kebijakan luarnegeri ini juga diikuti dengan kelihaiannya dalam melaksanakan pembangunan negara dalam berbagai bidang termasuk pembangunan dermaga dan pelabuhan perdagangan. Keberhasilannya melaksanakan pembangunan dan perluasan wilayah tidak lepas dari kemunduran dalam dinasti Abasyiah ditimur. Abdurrahman III adalah penguasa dinasti umayyah II yang pertama kali memakai gelar kholifah, sehingga pada masa itu ada tiga dinasti islam yang memakai gelar khalifah yaitu dinasti Abasyiah ditimur, dinasti Umayyah II di Sepanyol, dan dinasti Fathimiyah di Mesir.

IX.    Alhakam II ( 350-366H / 961-976M )

Alhakam II mewarisi kekhalifahan yang penuh kedamaian dan kesuksesan dari sang ayah, hanya ada beberapa peperangan penting yang melibatkan pasukan hakam II diantaranya aerang melawan pasukan kristen di Lyon yang melanggar perjanjian damai dengan bani Umayyah II, hakam juga mengirimkan pasukan kemaruko utara dan tengah dan berhasil mengusir pasukan dinasti Fathimiyah dan Idrissiyah yang semula mendudukinya. Dalam bidang ilmu pengetahuan ia banyak mendatangkan buku dari Damaskus, Bagdat, dan Kairo untuk mengisi perpustakaan negara didaerah Kordova.

X.       Hisyam II ( 366-399H / 976-1009M )

Hisyam II menjadi khalifah ketika berumur 10 thn hal ini tentu berimbas pada ketidak cakapannya mengelola jalannya pemerintahan. Oleh kerena itu orang yang paling berpengaruh dan berwenag menjalankan administrasi negara adalah Ibnu Abi Amir ( sang patih ).

Ibnu Abi Amir pada awalnya ia seorang penulis resmi kerajaan tiba-tiba berubah menjadi orang yang sangat berpengaruh dalam menentukan jalannya pemerintahan. Hal ini karena sejak kecil ia adalah orang yang sangat pandai dan cekatan juga lihai melihat situasi dan memanfaatkan kesempatan yang ada didepan mata, bermula dari kedekatannya dengan ibu hisyam II ia mulai mendapat kepercayaan untuk mengelolah mahkamah dibeberapa kota dan menjadi pengawas pelaksanaan zakat dan administrasi lainnya. Ketika banyak keluarga kerajaan yang menentang karena terpilihnya hisyam II sebagai khalifah, Ibnu Abi Amir datang sebagai dewa penyelamat. Keberhasilan ini menarik simpati dari kalangan masyarakat luas karena Ibnu Abi Amir beralasan bahwa itu semua ia lakukan demi menjaga keutuhan negara. Ia juga berhasil menyingkirkan panglima perang yang didakwah berkhianat dan korupsi yaitu Ja’far Bin Ustman Al-Mushhafi dan sebagai panglima perang berikutnya Ibnu Abi Amir berhasil menarik simpati tentara bawahannya dengan kesuksesannya menaklukkan kota Lyon. Dengan kesuksesan yang berturut-turut ini ia mendapat julukan Al-Mansyur Billah.

Dengan keadaan yang seperti ini khalifah Hisyam II tidak lebih dari sebuah simbol yang tidak berarti. Ia sama sekali tidak dikenal oleh masyarakat, bahkan ia dikenal sebagai khalifah yang suka bermain-main dan menghabiskan harta. Ibnu Abi Amir menguasai jalannya pemerintahan dinasti Umayyah II selama 27 thn, ia sakit dan wafat tahun 392 H / 1002 M. Putranya Al-Mudzaffar menggantikannya , namun hanya 6 thn. Sampai sata itu bani Umayyah II masih disegani oleh lawan-lawannya di Eropa tetapi ketika Al-Mudzaffar digantikan ole Abdurrahman An-nasir ( 399-421H / 1009-1031 ) terjadilah kemelut didalam negeri yang mengantarkan dinasti Umayyah II ketepi kehancuran.

C. Perkembangan Peradaban

Umat Islam di Spanyol telah mencapai kejayaan yang gemilang, banyak prestasi yang mereka peroleh, bahkan pengaruhnya membawa Eropa dan juga dunia kepada kemajuan yang lebih kompleks, terutama dalam hal kemajuan intelektual.

Dalam masa lebih dari tujuh abad kekuasaan Islam di Spanyol, umat Islam telah mencapai kejayaannya di sana. Banyak prestasi yang mereka peroleh, bahkan pengaruhnya membawa Eropa, dan kemudian membawa dunia kepada kemajuan yang lebih kompleks.

Kemajuan Intelektual

Spanyol adalah negeri yang subur. Kesuburan itu mendatangkan penghasilan ekonomi yang tinggi dan pada gilirannya banyak menghasilkan pemikir.

Masyarakat Spanyol Islam merupakan masyarakat majemuk yang terdiri dari :

- Komunitas-komunitas Arab (Utara dan Selatan)

- Al-Muwalladun (orang-orang Spanyol yang masuk Islam)

- Barbar (umat Islam yang berasal dari Afrika Utara)

- Al-Shaqalibah (tentara bayaran yang dijual Jerman kepada penguasa Islam)

- Yahudi

- Kristen Muzareb yang berbudaya Arab

- Kristen yang masih menentang kehadiran Islam

Semua komunitas itu, kecuali yang terakhir, memberikan saham intelektual terhadap terbentuknya lingkungan budaya Andalus yang melahirkan Kebangkitan Ilmiah, sastra, dan pembangunan fisik di Andalusia - Spanyol.

1. Filsafat

Islam di Spanyol telah mencatat satu lembaran budaya yang sangat brilian dalam bentangan sejarah Islam. Ia berperan sebagai jembatan penyeberangan yang dilalui ilmu pengetahuan Yunani-Arab ke Eropa pada abad ke-12. Minat terhadap filsafat dan ilmu pengetahuan mulai dikembangkan pada abad ke-9 M selama pemerintahan penguasa Bani Umayyah yang ke-5, Muhammad ibn Abdurrahman (832-886 M).

Atas inisiatif al-Hakam (961-976 M), karya-karya ilmiah dan filosofis diimpor dari Timur dalam jumlah besar, sehingga Cordova dengan perpustakaan dan universitas-universitasnya mampu menyaingi Baghdad sebagai pusat utama ilmu pengetahuan di dunia Islam. Apa yang dilakukan oleh para pemimpin dinasti Bani Umayyah di Spanyol ini merupakan persiapan untuk melahirkan filosof-filosof besar pada masa sesudahnya.

Bagian akhir abad ke-12 M menjadi saksi munculnya seorang pengikut Aristoteles yang terbesar di gelanggang filsafat dalam Islam, yaitu Ibn Rusyd dari Cordova. Ia lahir tahun 1126 M dan meninggal tahun 1198 M. Ciri khasnya adalah kecermatan dalam menafsirkan naskah-naskah Aristoteles dan kehati-hatian dalam menggeluti masalah-masalah menahun tentang keserasian filsafat dan agama. Dia juga ahli fiqh dengan karyanya Bidayah al- Mujtahid.

2. Sains

IImu-ilmu kedokteran, musik, matematika, astronomi, kimia dan lain-lain juga berkembang dengan baik. Abbas ibn Famas termasyhur dalam ilmu kimia dan astronomi. Ialah orang pertama yang menemukan pembuatan kaca dari batu. Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Naqqash terkenal dalam ilmu astronomi. Ia dapat menentukan waktu terjadinya gerhana matahari dan menentukan berapa lamanya. Ia juga berhasil membuat teropong modern yang dapat menentukan jarak antara tata surya dan bintang-bintang. Ahmad ibn Ibas dari Cordova adalah ahli dalam bidang obat-obatan. Umm al-Hasan bint Abi Ja’far dan saudara perempuan al-Hafidz adalah dua orang ahli kedokteran dari kalangan wanita.

Dalam bidang sejarah dan geografi, wilayah Islam bagian barat melahirkan banyak pemikir terkenal, Ibn Jubair dari Valencia (1145-1228 M) menulis tentang negeri-negeri muslim Mediterania dan Sicilia dan Ibn Batuthah dari Tangier (1304-1377 M) mencapai Samudera Pasai dan Cina. Ibn al-Khatib (1317-1374 M) menyusun riwayat Granada, sedangkan Ibn Khaldun dari Tunis adalah perumus filsafat sejarah. Semua sejarawan di atas bertempat tinggal di Spanyol, yang kemudian pindah ke Afrika. Itulah sebagian nama-nama besar dalam bidang sains.

3. Fiqih

Dalam bidang fiqh, Spanyol Islam dikenal sebagai penganut mazhab Maliki. Yang memperkenalkan mazhab ini di sana adalah Ziad ibn Abdurrahman. Perkembangan selanjutnya ditentukan oleh Ibn Yahya yang menjadi Qadhi pada masa Hisyam Ibn Abdurrahman. Ahli-ahli Fiqh lainnya diantaranya adalah Abu Bakr ibn al-Quthiyah, Munzir Ibn Sa’id al-Baluthi dan Ibn Hazm yang terkenal.

4. Musik dan Kesenian

Dalam bidang musik dan suara, Spanyol Islam mencapai kecemerlangan dengan tokohnya al-Hasan Ibn Nafi yang dijiluki Zaryab. Setiap kali diselenggarkan pertemuan dan jamuan, Zaryab selalu tampil mempertunjukkan kebolehannya. Ia juga terkenal sebagai penggubah lagu. Ilmu yang dimiliknya itu diturunkan kepada anak-anaknya baik pria maupun wanita, dan juga kepada budak-budak, sehingga kemasyhurannya tersebar luas.

5. Bahasa dan Sastra

Bahasa Arab telah menjadi bahasa administrasi dalam pemerintahan Islam di Spanyol. Hal itu dapat diterima oleh orang-orang Islam dan non-Islam. Bahkan, penduduk asli Spanyol menomor duakan bahasa asli mereka. Mereka juga banyak yang ahli dan mahir dalam bahasa Arab, baik keterampilan berbicara maupun tata bahasa. Mereka itu antara lain: Ibn Sayyidih, Ibn Malik pengarang Aljiyah, Ibn Khuruf, Ibn al-Hajj, Abu Ali al-Isybili, Abu al-Hasan Ibn Usfur, dan Abu Hayyan al-Ghamathi. Seiring dengan kemajuan bahasa itu, karya-karya sastra bermunculan, seperti Al-’Iqd al-Farid karya Ibn Abd Rabbih, al-Dzakhirahji Mahasin Ahl al-Jazirah oleh Ibn Bassam, Kitab al-Qalaid buah karya al-Fath ibn Khaqan, dan banyak lagi yang lain.

EMPIRE TURKI USMANI. SAFAWI, MOGHUL

It is certainly one of the curiosities of history that Shaykh Safiyud-Din, the founder of the Safawi House (vivebat circa AD 1252-1334), should not have been a Shia. Yet there is no evidence of his having held Shia tenets or even of his having had Shia proclivities, while he is positively asserted to have been a Sunni in a letter addressed to Shaykh Safi’s descendant Tahmasp Shah Safawi by the Uzbeg Prince Ubaydallah Khan.  The first head of the Safawi House whose Shiaism is beyond question is Shaykh Safi’s grandson and second successor, Shaykh Khwaja Ali (pontificali munere fungebatur  AD 1392-1427). The conversion of the House of the Imami (i.e. the Twelve-Imam) version of Shiaism – whether abruptly or gradually (as is perhaps more probable) – must have been taken place between the pontificates of the grandfather and the grandson.

This exceptional case of conversion from Sunnism to Shiaism round about the fourteenth century does not appear to have occasioned, on either side, any immediate outbreak of either aggressive or defensive fanaticism. Indeed it is Shaykh Khwaja Ali, the first of the Safawi line who was unquestionably a Shia, who is reported to have prevailed upon Timur Lenk to liberate a number of his Osmanli prisoners of war, notwithstanding the fact that the Osmanlis were a Sunni community. And the tolerant and humane attitude towards the adherents of the opposite sect, which this story ascribes to an enthusiastic Shia, appears to have been also the attitude of the Sunnis in this age towards the Shia. The tolerance of the Ottoman Government, which was one of the principal Sunni Powers of the day, is attested by the fact that Shah Quli, who was a propagandist of the Shia faith in the Ottoman dominions and a political agent of the Safawi Power into the bargain, was receiving a pension from the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II (imperabat AD 1481-1512), and was in friendly relations with Bayezid’s son Qorqud, who was the Sultan’s viceroy at Manysa, down to the eve of the great rebellion of AD 1511-12, in which Shah Quli sought to overthrow the Sunni Ottoman Power in order that the Shia Safawi Power might reign in its stead. In fact, the normal relation between the Sunnah and the Shia, during the two centuries ending in the first decade of the sixteenth century, seems to have been the relation of ‘live and let live’ which still prevails between the Sunnis and Shias of India at this day.

Ottoman Empire
allaboutturkey.com

This amiable and reasonable relation between the two ancient sects of Islam in the Iranic World augured well for the prospects of the rising Iranic Civilization. Unhappily, persecution was substituted for toleration and hatred for indifference or goodwill by the action of two princes : the Safawi Shah Ismail (dominabatur AD 1499/1500-1523/4) and the Osmanli Sultan Selim I (imperabatAD 1512-20) – an adversary in whom the violent and implacable character of Ismail found its match, to the undoing of the Iranic Society which had given birth to both these men of blood. In this savage encounter, which changed the course of Islamic history by reopening a breach which has only begun to close again within living memory, the initiative was taken by Ismail; and it continued to remain with him even after his signal discomfiture by Selim in AD 1514. Accordingly, the career of Ismail, and not the career of Selim, is the guiding thread which we have to follow.

THE CAREER OF ISMAIL SHAH SAFAWI DOWN TO AD 1511

Ismail’s career provokes two questions: First, how was it that the heir to the headship of a religious order – and an order which was committed to non-violence by its tenets – now burst upon the World as a military conqueror and became the founder of a political empire? And, second, what was Ismail’s ultimate military and political aim?

The answer to the first question is that the metamorphosis of the Safawi organization from a religious order propagating itself by pacific missionary enterprise into a political power extending its dominion by military force had been accomplished already by Ismail Shah’s grandfather Shaykh Junayd (militabat AD 1447-56), who was the grandson of Shaykh Khwaja Ali and the great-great-grandson of Shaykh Safi. Shaykh Junayd was evidently tempted to abandon Imami principles, revolutionize Safawi practice, and try his fortune in the political and military arena by the political vacuum that was created in Iran and Iraq by the utter disintegration of the Timurid Empire after the death of Shah Rukh – an event which occurred in the very year of Shaykh Junayd’s accession. Shaykh Junayd raised a military force of ten thousand ‘Saint Militant’ (Ghuzat-i-Sufiyah); and his son and successor Shaykh Haydar (militabat AD 1456-88), who was the father and predecessor of Shah Ismail, gave the Safawi troops their distinctive uniform, the scarlet cap of twelve gores, which gained them their nickname of ‘Red Heads’ (Qyzyl Bash). Both Shaykh Junayd and Shaykh Haydar fell in battle. It will be seen that the Safawi military tradition was inherited and not created by Ismail, though Ismail himself was the first of his line to pursue the military career with success. For weal or woe, however, the Safawi House had taken decisively to militarism between Junayd’s accession in AD 1447 and Ismail’s in AD 1499/1500.

Mehmed the Conqueror

When we inquire into Ismail’s ultimate aim when in AD 1499/1500, at the age of thirteen, he started to turn his inherited military power to account, we find that he aimed at nothing less than the military conquest of the entire Iranic World and he proposed to use his power in order to impose the faith of the Shia minority of the Iranic Society upon the consciences of the Sunni majority by sheer force. The two objectives have to be distinguished, because the second was a sensational and deplorable departure from the Iranic practice of ‘live and let live’, whereas the former was a natural reflection of the social unity of the Iranic World, which had remained unbroken down to Ismail’s day. (The history of the Safawis is one example of the historical phenomenon of a would-be universal church becoming militant and paying the penalty of military success by turning into a local state. Other examples are the transformation of the Zoroastrian Church into the Sasanian Empire, and the history of the Sikhs. ..)

Ismail’s oecumenical ambitions are revealed in the organization of his army. Two of his army corps bore the names of Turkmen tribes – Avshars and the Qajars – and this Turkish tribal element was perhaps the nucleus, since the Safawi battle-cry was in the Turkish language, and a Turkish vernacular was Ismail’s own mother-tongue, as is testified by the evidence of his poetical works. The majority of the corps, however, bore geographical names which corresponded to the dominions of various Sunni Powers of the day. (Sections of the Avshars ranged as far afield as the Uzun Yayla, the watershed between the Euphrates and the Halys, on the west and Khurasan eastward. The Khurasani Avshars gave birth, two centuries later, to Nadir Shah. The Qajars, who had established themselves in the Caspian Provinces, gave birth to the Turkish dynasty that ruled the Empire of Iran from AD 1779, officially from 1796, to AD 1925.) Presumably the soldiers who served in each of these Safawi corps were actually recruited from the respective countries after which the corps were named; and the names were tantamount to an announcement of Ismail’s intention to extend his rule over each of these countries through the military prowess of his local adherents who had already rallied to his banner. ........

The collapse of the Timurid Power had given the Osmanlis relief without tempting them either to take their revenge for the wanton blow which Timur had dealt them, or again to indulge their ambitions by occupying the new vacuum on their Asiatic frontier. They contented themselves with restoring their Asiatic dominions to the limits at which they had stood before Timur intervened in Anatolia: and when, half a century after the overthrow of Bayezid I by Timur at Angora in AD 1402, Bayezid’s successor Mehmet the Conqueror (imperabat AD 1451-81) found the Ottoman Power sufficiently recuperated to go into action again, he deliberately pursued the established policy of his House. In spite of his name and fame, Mehmet Padishah Osmanli was not a ‘conqueror’ in the same sense as either Timur Lenk or Ismail Shah Safawi; for he was not aiming at an oecumenical dominion. He is famous because he set himself with success to round off an empire which had expanded steadily within definite limits. The Osmanlis were an Iranic community which had started life in the borderland between the Iranic and the Orthodox Christian worlds and had acquired an empire by conquering Orthodox Christian territories. This historical function of the Ottoman empire-builders was to bring the Orthodox Christian Society’s ‘Time of Troubles’ to a close by uniting the whole of the main body of the Orthodox Christiandom politically into one universal state under an alien Pax Ottomanica. And this Ottoman task, which had been interrupted, on the verge of completion, by Timur’s tempestuous passage, was duly completed by Sultan Mehmed II. ........ Until the appearance on the scene of Ismail Shah Safawi, with his programme of oecumenical conquest and forcible conversion to Shiaism, there is no indication of any Ottoman ambition to expand in Asia, outside the historical limits of Orthodox Christiandom, at the expense of other Islamic Powers, just as there is none of any Ottoman intolerance towards the Shiah. The military and religious aggressiveness of Ismail eventually forced a profound change of policy upon the Osmanlis on both these heads.

Bayzid II, 1481-1512
en.wikipedia.org

At the outset, however, the persistent and deliberate passivity of the Ottoman policy in Asia worked together with the disintegration of the Timurid Power to give Ismail Shah Safawi’s ambitions a free field. The derelict Timurid domain was virtually at the disposal of the first comer; and the portion of the prize that lay nearest to Ismail’s base of operations in Gilan was the western half, in which the Timurid regime had not only broken down but had disappeared altogether. .... Ismail’s first military success was the defeat and slaughter of the King of Shirwan (the slayer of Ismail’s father Haydar) in AD 1500. The decisive victory in this first stage of Ismail’s career was the overthrow of the Aq Qoyunlu at the Battle of Shurur in AD 1501/2: a triumph which was followed by the crowning of Ismail in Tabriz and by the sensational inauguration of his religious policy of wholesale conversion by force. Between AD 1500 and AD 1508 (the year of his conquest of Baghdad), Ismail had eliminated all powers and principalities, great or small, that challenged his mastery over an area which extended from the province of Shirwan, at the south-eastern foot of the Caucasus, to the province of Kirman on the south-western border of the Dash-i-Lut, the Central Desert of Iran. .....

What were to be Ismail’s relations with the petty Timurid princes who still retained a precarious hold upon Khurasan and Transoxania between the north-eastern border of the Central Desert of Iran and the southern fringe of the European Steppe? This question was answered for Ismail by the apparition of a rival aspirant to the Timurid inheritance who had been conquering the north-eastern half of it while Ismail had been similarly engaged in the west. This competitor was a new Eurasian Nomad intruder upon Iranic soil, in the shape of Shaybak or Shaybani Khan, the leader of Uzbegs.

This fresh invasion of the Islamic World by a Eurasian Nomad horde within less than a century after the death of Timur Lenk was a signal proof that Timur’s life-work was utterly undone. It had been Timur’s mission to liberate the oases of Transoxania from Nomad domination and to establish an Iranic military and political ascendancy over the Eurasian Nomadic World. But Timur had turned aside from the completion of this constructive task in order to exhaust the energies of the Iranic Society in barren fratricidal conflicts with the contemporary Iranic Powers in Western Iran and Iraq and Hindustan and Anatolia. The return of the Nomadic tide within less than a century was the nemesis for the wanton misdirection of aim which had wrecked Timur’s career. The Uzbeg invasion of Transoxania and Khurasan in the first decade of the sixteenth century was the more portentous inasmuch as it was not, apparently, occasioned by any deterioration in the physical environment of the Nomadic life on the Uzbegs’ Eurasian ranges. The physical pressure resulting from a desiccation of the Steppe accounts for many of the most violent and sensational eruptions of Nomadic conquerors from ‘the Desert’ into ‘the Sown’; but ‘the Pulse of Asia’ appears to beat in a rhythmical alternation of aridity and humidity; and the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries appears to fall within what was a relatively humid period in the alternating rhythm. Thus the Uzbegs’ irruption into the Iranic World at this date can hardly be accounted for by a physical push from behind; and it must therefore be attributed to a social pull from in front. The political vacuum left by the collapse of the Timurid Empire was drawing in the Uzbegs from one quarter at the moment when it was drawing in the Qyzyl-Bash from the other. .....

Safawid architecture
Sheikh lotfallah Mosque, Isfahan

Muhammad Shaybani had the choice of seeking his fortune in either of two alternative directions. He might turn towards Russia or turn towards Transoxania; and, if he had come upon the scene a century or so earlier, he would probably have chosen the former objective, for Russia had been one of the easiest as well as the widest conquests of ‘the Sown’ which the Eurasian Nomads had made in their latest and greatest eruptions out of ‘the Desert’, under Mongol leadership, in the thirteenth century. At the close of the fifteenth century, Mongol Khanate of Juji’s appanage which had exercised this Nomad dominion over Russia was still in existence at the Saray on the left bank of the Volga, just below the elbow where that river’s course approaches closest to the course of the Don. (Chagatay and Juji were sons of Chingis Khan whose descendants and followers had received these domains as their appanages. The Khans who ruled at Saray at the close of the fifteenth century were descendants of Toqatmysh, the King of the White Horde who had momentarily united all the hordes of Juji’s appanage under a single leadership in AD 1381 – for the first and last time – and had sacked Moscow in 1382, in reprisal for the first Russian attempt to shake off the Tatar yoke, before he crossed the path of Timur.) But Saray now offered no attractive prospect to a Nomad soldier of fortune; for Russia had become more than a match for the Nomads after the union of the two strongest Russian states – the Grand Duchy of Muscovy and the Republic of Novgorod – in AD 1478; and the Russians did not wait long before they passed over to the offensive. In 1502, when Muhammad Shaybani was busy carving out a kingdom for himself at the expense of his fellow Muslims in Transoxania, Saray was annexed by Russia; and this was the first step in a Russian advance which only found its terms, four centuries later, on the coast of the Pacific and on the summit of the Pamirs.

Meanwhile, Shaybani Khan Uzbeg had made better provision for his own fortunes – though not for the interests of the Iranic Society or of Islam – by turning his face in the other alternative direction. He repaired to Transoxania; took service with the Timurid Government of Bukhara; changed sides in a battle between his Timurid master and the Chaghatay Khan of Western Mughalistan; was rewarded by his new patron with the governorship of Tashqand; and used this post as ‘a jumping-off ground’ for springing, on his own account, upon the Timurid dominions of Bukhara and Samarqand.

Ottoman architecture
Sultan Ahmet (Blue) Mosque
mygola.com

Muhammad Shaybani’s conquest of the two chief cities of Transoxania was achieved in the same year – AD 1500 – in which Ismail Safawi made his military debut at the opposite end of the ci-devant Timurid Empire by conquering the Transcaucasian province of Shirwan; and therefore the two conquerors pushed forward into Iran with equal speed from the north-east and the north-west towards ‘the natural frontier’ of the Central Desert. The Timurids were as utterly outmatched by the Shaybani as the Aq Qoyunlu were by the Safawi. In AD 1501-2, the young Timurid prince Babur, who had inherited the small and out-of-the-way province of Farghana, made his first entry upon the stage of history in a gallant attempt to retrieve for his House their lost Transoxanian dominions. He actually recovered Samarqand for a moment – only to be driven out and to lose his own patrimony of Farghana into the bargain. Thereafter, in AD 1502-3, Babur persuaded the Chaghatay Khans of Western and Eastern Mughalistan to join forces with each other and with himself in an attempt to drive the Uzbegs out of Farghana; but the Shaybani was stronger than the coalition. He took the two Khans prisoner and annexed the greater part of the Chaghatay Horde’s ranges, as well as the province of Tashqand, which he formerly governed as their agent, while Babur fled to Afghanistan. Thereupon, in AD 1505-8, the Shaybani conquered Khwarizm with one hand and Khurasan with the other, until, of all the House of Timur, Babur, and Babur only, was left in the field; and Babur was a fugitive from his home. ....

In 1510 Muhammad Shaybani committed the folly of poaching upon Ismail Safawi’s preserves. In this year he crossed the Iranian desert, raided the province of Kirman (perhaps this raid was executed in the same campaign as an unsuccessful expedition, likewise attributed to the year 1510, against the Hazaras, a stray Mongol tribe which had been left stranded on the south side of the Hidu Kush), and sent ‘a most insulting letter in reply to Ismail’s politely worded remonstrance’. The Safawi retorted to this provocation by marching against the Shaybani and bringing him to battle at Tahir-abad, near Merv. In this second decisive battle in Shah Ismail’s career, which was fought on the 1^st or 2^nd December 1510, the Uzbegs were heavily defeated by the Qyzyl Bash, and Muhammad Khan Shaybani himself was among the slain.

This victory doubled Ismail’s power at one stroke; and the events which followed played still further into his hands. Upon the news of Tahir-abad, Babur promptly issued out of his fastness in Afghanistan and attempted once again to recover Transoxania with the aid of 20,000 Chaghatay Mughals who had been transplanted from Zungaria to Khurasan by Muhammad Shaybani. The Uzbegs, however, had been defeated by Ismail without being annihilated; and Babur found that they were still too strong for him when he measured his strength against them once more in January 1511. At this juncture, when Babur was marking time, baffled, at Qunduz, on the south side of the Oxus, Ismail intervened. He sent an embassy to Babur bringing Babur’s sister (she was Shaybani’s widow) and an offer of friendship; and this courtly gesture on Ismail’s part seems to have been followed by negotiations between the heir of the Safawis and the heir of the Timurids over which the later historians of Babur and his orthodox Sunni descendants have discreetly drawn a veil. (We do not know how Babur handled this delicate and dubious transaction himself, since the relevant section of his Memoirs is lost.) The fact seems to be that the two princes struck an unholy bargain. Babur, on his part, seems to have asked for, and received, a promise of military assistance from Ismail; while Ismail, on his part, seems to have made his military assistance conditional upon Babur’s conversion to Shiaism, and to have received Babur’s assurance that he would accept Ismail’s help on Ismail’s terms. (The lukewarmness, to say the least of it, toward the Sunnah, which this reputed bargain presupposes on Babur’s part, may perhaps be brought into relation with the reported Shiite proclivities of a kinsman of Babur’s in the preceding generation, Sultan Husayn Bayqara.)

The first result was that, in October 1511, Babur returned to the attack with a Qyzyl Bash army supporting him; and that, with this support, he achieved in the autumn what he had failed to achieve in the preceding winter. He successfully reoccupied Samarqand and drove the Uzbeg invaders out of the Transoxanian oases into their native steppes. This victory, won with Ismail’s aid by a fugitive prince who had become Ismail’s lieutenant, was Ismail’s own victory in effect; and thereafter, during the interval between the campaigning seasons of AD 1511 and AD 1512, Ismail stood at the height of his power. ....

At this point, however, which was the zenith of his career, Shah Ismail was overtaken by the nemesis of his dual ambition: the ambition to win an oecumenical empire by conquest and to use this political power in order to impose the minoritarian religion of Shiaism upon a Sunni majority by main force. ..........

Continued.